Echolocation in humans

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I've been researching the link between the Chromosome 2 inversion/fusion (which activated the photic sneeze reflex) in humans as opposed to other hominoids (apes). The ARC theory includes the possibility that this Chr.2 inversion enabled improved submerged dive-foraging (faster exhale of "used" air while backfloating under sunlit sky) after about 5,000,000 years ago. A significant addendum to this functional mutation is the change from arboreal bowl-like nests to ground-based "inside out bowl" dome huts. Apes insert leaves into their nests for comfort, indigeonous forest people (eg. Mbuti, Mbarbarm) insert leaves onto the outside of their dome huts, in a coiled shingle fashion, to waterproof the huts. I speculate that long ago, the salt trade was initiated by coastal people that gathered salty mangrove leaves, notched them and hung them from kelp belts, bringing them inland for huts and trade.

I consider the shingled inverted dome-bowl huts to be specifically human, and likely related to the Chrom. 2 inversion, and I think it affected human evolution. Please see this article for the effects of entering a room:

"Radvansky found that the subjects forgot more after walking through a doorway compared to moving the same distance across a room, suggesting that the doorway or "event boundary" impedes one's ability to retrieve thoughts or decisions made in a different room".

Walking through doorways causes forgetting, new research shows

Interesting that entering through a doorway affects the mind. Humans are the only hominioids whose night-time boundaries exclude the sky (furry great apes sleep in woven open bowl nests high above the forest floor, exposed to stars, wind and flying insects). Might there be a common link in human ancestry between "entering/undering" a woven dome hut and submerging underwater? Consider the beaver hut and the Eskimo igloo, both have low entries below the main floor, while the Congo Mbuti pymy dome hut also has a very low/small doorway, requiring a large person to belly-crawl to enter.

I think "entering underneath" a dome was part of what made us human, changing the mind as opposed to hopping into or climbing into a nest.

Words that mean "Inside", interior or in the hut:
West Africa Yoruba: inu
Congo Mbuti: endu/ra
Ethiopian Amharic: indani
Ancient Greek: endo/r
Spanish/Latin: at/ento (tent?) ondo/deep-under
German: immer (room is zimmer)
Sri Lanka Singhalese: (tent = kudaram)
Malay/Indonesian: dalam (tent = kemah)
English: entry/enter/interior/end/inside
Hebrew: ervu


DDeden

(edited to add notes, more at my blog the arc regarding tent pegs, totem poles, megaliths, kites, sails etc.)

 

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Dolphin sounding and stranding

Sometimes when corralling fish, dolphins' excited behavior and loud sonar attracts Orca killer whales (which are mega-dolphins). This typically causes the dolphins to flee to avoid them. I think this may be the reason for some strandings, as the dolphins must be silent to escape the larger echolocating orcas, and thus they must rely on sight navigation while near shallows and surf, a risky manuever.

Perhaps not the case in this Brazil beach stranding video from March 2012 (I see neither orcas nor fish) but a similar scenario could happen due to 'deaf reckoning':

http://elcomercio.pe/player/1384898

 

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OT but a very nice video of Global surface currents:

http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2012-03/video-swirling-visualization-oceans-currents

 

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Dolphins echolocate using fat linking the ears. Baleen whales are not known to echolocate, but do make long distance calls and moans, and have recently been found to also have fat depositis near the inner ear:

The auditory anatomy of the minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata):
a potential fatty sound reception pathway in a baleen whale
http://csi.whoi.edu/sites/default/files/literature/Yamato_2012.pdf
Yamato, Maya cs 2012 The Anatomical Record doi 10.1002/ar.22459

Cetacea possess highly derived auditory systems adapted for underwater
hearing.
- Odontoceti (toothed whales) are thought to receive sound through
specialized fat bodies that contact the tympano-periotic complex, the
bones housing the middle & inner ears.
- Sound reception pathways remain unknown in Mysticeti (baleen whales),
which have very different cranial anatomies compared to odontocetes.

Here, we report a potential fatty sound reception pathway in the minke
whale (balaenopterid).
The cephalic anatomy of 7 minke whales was investigated, using CT & MRI,
verified through dissections.
Findings include
1) a large well-formed fat body lateral, dorsal & posterior to the
mandibular ramus, lateral to the tympano-periotic complex.
This fat body inserts into the tympano-periotic complex at the lateral
aperture between the tympanic & periotic bones, and is in contact with the
ossicles.
2) a 2d smaller body of fat within the tympanic bone, which contacts the
ossicles as well.

This is the first analysis of these fatty tissues' association with the
auditory structures in a mysticete, providing anatomical evidence that
fatty sound reception pathways may not be a unique feature of odontocete
cetaceans.



http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/04/scienceshot-baleen-whales-use
.html?ref=em
Baleen Whales Use 'Ear Fat' to Hear
Jane J Lee 19.4.12

Whales use sound to
- communicate over entire oceans,
- search for food &
- coordinate attacks.
How baleen whales (that use comb-like projections from the roof of their
mouth to
catch food) heard these grunts & moans was something of a mystery.
Toothed whales (dolphins & porpoises) use lobes of fat connected to their
jawbones & ears to pick up sounds.
But in-depth analyses of baleen whales weren't previously possible,
because their sheer size made them impossible to fit into CT & MRI
scanners, which analyze soft tissues.
So in a new study (Anat Rec), researchers focused on one of the smaller
spp, minke whales:
triangular patches of fat surrounding minke whale ears (yellow patches,
above) could be key to how they hear.
The Auditory Anatomy of the Minke Whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata): A Potential Fatty Sound Reception Pathway in a Baleen Whale - Yamato - 2012 - The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology - Wiley Online Library
They scanned 7 minke whale heads in CT & MRI machines, created computer
models of the ears & surrounding soft tissue, and dissected the whale
noggins to reveal ear fat running from blubber just under the skin to the
ear bones.
This is similar to the arrangement found in toothed whales (dolphins).
The novel analysis allowed the authors to speculate that the ear fat in
both toothed and baleen whales could have shared a common evolutionary
origin.

 

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I was reading a chapter on human echoloction experiments in the popular science book by Ingram 'The velocity of honey'.

Sign in to read: The Velocity of Honey: And more science of everyday life by Jay Ingram - science-in-society - 15 January 2005 - New Scientist

Rythm in song allows discontinuity as opposed to arrythmic pure tones, this is very important in both general (human-like) and specialized (dolphin-like) echolocation, Blind and blind-folded participants in distance-from-wall-detection study could <hear-"see"> the wall using almost any typical sounds (clicking, feet scraping carpet, humming) as long there was some rhythm (sound, no sound, sound), but a pure tones gave a very poor "view" except one unique super-high tone (inaudible to humans, 5 octaves above high C on piano) which produced a clear echolocating doppler echo.

Blindfolded dolphins can distinguish discs of different materials, humans did likewise in the experiments (cloth, metal, wood), via echolocation.

Most animals have some sort of song (often not recognized as such by humans).

In mice, it helps females to detect males and distinguish their quality & avoid too-closely-related males.

 

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Plant roots "click", possibly communicate chemically & aucoustically.

Trends in Plant Science
Volume 17, Issue 6, June 2012, Pages 323–325

Spotlight
Towards understanding plant bioacoustics

* Monica Gagliano1, 2, E-mail the corresponding author,
* Stefano Mancuso3,
* Daniel Robert4

* 1 Centre for Evolutionary Biology, School of Animal Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
* 2 Centre for Microscopy, Characterisation and Analysis, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
* 3 LINV, Department of Plant, Soil and Environmental Science, University of Firenze, Sesto F.no (FI), Italy
* 4 School of Biological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

* Available online 21 March 2012.

* dx.doi.org...

Little is known about plant bioacoustics. Here, we present a rationale as to why the perception of sound and vibrations is likely to have also evolved in plants. We then explain how current evidence contributes to the view that plants may indeed benefit from mechanosensory mechanisms thus far unsuspected.


Plants May

PLoS ONE: Out of Sight but Not out of Mind: Alternative Means of Communication in Plants

They tested chili and fennel. Perhaps seagrass or seaweed click also.

Perhaps seagrass or seaweed use tiny rootlet filaments like human inner ear 'hair" cells to detect vibrations; if so then echolocation might be possible. I doubt it, though. But clicking and sound reception underwater might have practical applications for terrestrial and aquatic plants in ways we can't easily imagine (we being mobile mammals and all.)

 

[M_Mack]

There have been cases of blind people learning to use echolocation to see, so it's definitely not impossible. This was the first one I ever saw, but there have been others: [ame=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qLziFMF4DHA]Extraordinary People - The boy who sees without eyes [1/5] - YouTube[/ame]

 

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Some more extraneous info., this on seeing around corners using normal light:
BBC News - Light trick to see around corners
[ I would think this is a form of 'light echolocation, using instruments for reception of reflection'. BTW I just read that a white surface reflects light while a black surface both absorbs and re-emits light. I hadn't known black emitted light!]

"What we have shown is that you don't need lasers - everybody else was doing this with lasers, and we showed you can do it with incoherent light from a lamp or the Sun - natural light," Prof Silberberg told BBC News.

But the team then realised that the same approach can work in reflection - that is, not passing through a scattering material but bouncing off of it, such as the case of light bouncing off a wall at a corner.

They then showed the procedure works just as well when the light from an object bounces off a piece of paper; the SLM could "learn" how to undo the paper's scattering effect, making it a nearly perfect reflector.

As Prof Silberberg puts it: "You can take a piece of wall and effectively turn it into a mirror, and this is the part that makes everybody raise an eyebrow."

However, he said that the primary use for the technique will be in biological and medical studies - especially tackling the highly scattering white brain matter in neurological imaging - rather than the business of seeing through thin materials or around corners"

I just bought a mask and snorkel, went diving in Biscayne Bay next to Virginia Key, thick seagrass but a few open spots, saw some groupers. (I brought a magnifying lens, found that it didn't 'work' underwater, was just like window glass). Before I had a mask I had just used my hands to form a cup against the eyebrows to hold air in order to see clearly without a mask, (perhaps that was how ancient neandertal cavemen dive-foragers developed their huge brow ridges long ago?). Anyway, the "scattering" mentioned above is related to how light acts underwater, and how echolocation in dolphins, electroreception in sharks, etc. give massive advantages to predators in murky/turbulent waters where vision is severly constrained.

 

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Beluga whale learns to speak, controls nasal sac valve

BBC News - Beluga whale 'makes human-like sounds'

controls nasal sac for sound modification; normal voice is near-ultrasonic chirps/buzzes/clicks (sea canary), while nonecholocating whales have low near- infrasonic voices

 

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< BBC News - Homing pigeon 'Bermuda Triangle' explained >


Dr Hagstrum thinks the birds listen to low frequency sounds to find their way back home


This happened again and again, apart from on one occasion on 13 August 1969 when the birds' navigational prowess returned and they flew back to their loft.


Dr Hagstrum has now come up with an explanation.


He said: "The way birds navigate is that they use a compass and they use a map. The compass is usually the position of the Sun or the Earth's magnetic field, but the map has been unknown for decades.


"I have found they are using sound as their map... and this will tell them where they are relative to their home."


The pigeons, he said, use "infrasound", which is an extremely low-frequency sound that is below the range of human hearing.


He explained: "The sound originates in the ocean. Waves in the deep ocean are interfering and they create sound in both the atmosphere and the Earth. You can pick this energy up anywhere on Earth, in the centre of a continent even."

 

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A quantum theory for their replaceable role of docosahexaenoic acid in
neural cell signalling throughout evolution
Michael A.Crawford, C.Leigh Broadhurst, Martin Guest, Atulya Nagar, Yiqun
Wang, Kebreab Ghebremeskel, Walter F.Schmidt

600 Ma the fossil record displays the sudden appearance of intra-cellular
detail & the 32 phyla.
The Cambrian Explosion marks the onset of dominant aerobic life.
Fossil intra-cellular structures are so similar to extant organisms that
they were likely made with similar membrane lipids & proteins, which
together provided for organisation & specialisation.
While amino acids could be synthesised >4000 Ma, only oxidative metabolism
allows for the synthesis of highly unsaturated fatty acids, thus producing
novel lipid molecular species for specialised cell membranes.
DHA provided the core for the development of the photo-receptor, and
conversion of photons into electricity stimulated the evolution of the
nervous system & brain.
Since then, DHA has been conserved as the principle acyl component of
photo-receptor synaptic & neuronal signalling membranes in the
cephalopods, fish, amphibian, reptiles, birds, mammals & humans.
This extreme conservation in electrical signalling membranes - despite
great genomic change - suggests it was DHA dictating to DNA, rather than
the generally accepted other way around.
We offer a theoretical explanation, based on the quantum-mechanical
properties of DHA for such extreme conservation.
The unique molecular structure of DHA allows for quantum transfer &
communication of p-electrons, which explains the precise depolarisation of
retinal membranes and the cohesive organised neural signalling, which
characterises higher intelligence.

1. Introduction
The cell membrane lipid bi-layer is the home of about 1/3 of all known
cellular proteins.
These are the transporters, ion channels, receptors & signalling systems,
and are dependent on the lipid domains in which they sit.
The species, organ & even sub-cellular specificity of lipids testifies to
exact demands of differentiated cells & precise protein*lipid
interactions, eg,
The membrane lipid composition is different for the endothelium, heart
muscle, kidneys, liver & brain.
Even within a given tissue, there are specific differences in the plasma
membrane compared to the mitochondria & nuclear envelope.
The highly specific, characteristic differences in the plasma membranes of
the neural, endo- & epithelial cells; or glomerulus & distal tubules of
the kidneys, cannot be based on vague compositional directives.
We propose this constancy & specificity is a function of specific
protein*lipid interactions operating in a multi-dimensional fashion
similar to what has been described for proteins.
This relationship has to be a 2-way system.
During cell differentiation, the specialist proteins that arrive will seek
a lipid match & v.v.
If the matching lipids are not present, the system may fail, regardless of
the protein components.
Proteins are built with 20 Aas that are assembled into 3D structures.
Because of the molecular motion of the final protein assembly, it is an
example of supra-molecular chemistry, which includes reversible
non-covalent associations, hydrogen-bonding, metal-coordination, p*p
interactions & electro-chemical effects involving lipo-philic &
hydrophilic structures. In that sense a protein in a living cell exists in
6 dimensions.
4th Dimension: electro-chemical profile.
5th Dimension: vanderWaals type forces.

 

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{dolphin clicking began with low/slow clicks in turbid fresh-brackish water, evolved into high freq buzz for greater distance in ocean}



To sustain themselves, river dolphins must find their food, often small fish or crustaceans, in highly turbid water where visibility seldom exceeds a few inches.



Surprisingly, the echolocation signals turned out to be much less intense than those employed by marine dolphins of similar size and it seemed that the freshwater dolphins were looking for prey at much shorter distances. From this, the researchers surmise that both the dolphin species and the river dolphin were echolocating at short range due to the complex and circuitous river system that they were foraging in.

While both Irawaddy and Ganges river dolphin produced lower intensity biosonar, the Ganges river dolphin had an unexpectedly low frequency biosonar, nearly half as high as expected if this species had been a marine dolphin.




A new perspective on the evolution of biosonar

The study suggests that echolocation in toothed whales initially evolved as a short, broadband and low-frequent click. As dolphins and other toothed whales evolved in the open ocean, the need to detect schools of fish or other prey items quickly favored a long-distance biosonar system. As animals gradually evolved to produce and to hear higher sound frequencies, the biosonar beam became more focused and the toothed whales were able to detect prey further away.

However, the Ganges river dolphin separated from other toothed whales early throughout this evolutionary process, adapting to a life in shallow, winding river systems where a high-frequency, long-distance sonar system may have been less important than other factors such as high maneuverability or the flexible neck that helps these animals capture prey at close range or hiding within mangrove roots or similar obstructions.

The Archaeology News Network: An ancient biosonar sheds new light on the evolution of echolocation in toothed whales



Note lack of dorsal fin, similar to beluga (flexible neck) which somewhat resembles large seals/walrus/manatees



PLOS ONE: Clicking in Shallow Rivers: Short-Range Echolocation of Irrawaddy and Ganges River Dolphins in a Shallow, Acoustically Complex Habitat

 

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PLOS ONE: Neural Correlates of Natural Human Echolocation in Early and Late Blind Echolocation Experts

Neural Correlates of Natural Human Echolocation in Early and Late Blind Echolocation Experts

Abstract

Background

A small number of blind people are adept at echolocating silent objects simply by producing mouth clicks and listening to the returning echoes. Yet the neural architecture underlying this type of aid-free human echolocation has not been investigated. To tackle this question, we recruited echolocation experts, one early- and one late-blind, and measured functional brain activity in each of them while they listened to their own echolocation sounds.

Results

When we compared brain activity for sounds that contained both clicks and the returning echoes with brain activity for control sounds that did not contain the echoes, but were otherwise acoustically matched, we found activity in calcarine cortex in both individuals. Importantly, for the same comparison, we did not observe a difference in activity in auditory cortex. In the early-blind, but not the late-blind participant, we also found that the calcarine activity was greater for echoes reflected from surfaces located in contralateral space. Finally, in both individuals, we found activation in middle temporal and nearby cortical regions when they listened to echoes reflected from moving targets.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that processing of click-echoes recruits brain regions typically devoted to vision rather than audition in both early and late blind echolocation experts.

 

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BBC News - Shape of a room 'heard' by acoustic echoes

Rooms mapped sonically

Shape of a room 'heard' by acoustic echoes
By Melissa Hogenboom

Science reporter, BBC News

Echoes bouncing off walls revealed the shape of a cathedral

Use your 'inner bat' to navigate
The hum that helps to fight crime
Using echoes to navigate the world

The shape of a room can be modelled using echoes produced from sound, new research has found.

Like bats who emit sounds in order to navigate, researchers can now plug sounds into a computer algorithm to map a room.

The team were able to build a full 3D image of a room using four microphones to record echoes bouncing off walls.

Writing in the journal PNAS, the researchers say the technology could one day help solve crime.

The ability to use sounds to navigate the world, called echolocation, is already used by dolphins and bats. Though rare, some blind people have also been known to possess this skill.

Bouncing echoes

But now with the help of a computer algorithm, the echoes from a chirp like sound can reveal the shape of a room

Bats also use echoes transmitting back to them in order to 'see' their environment
The algorithm could also distinguish between stronger and weaker echoes and whether they had bounced one or more times around the room.

 

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"Bat Man" Daniel Kish uses clicks to see...2 clicks per second while riding bike

National Geographic Magazine - NGM.com

Clicks are heard much faster in water

 

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Spotted seals hear both in air (same as cats) and underwater:
The behavioral audiograms show a range of best sensitivity
- spanning 4 octaves in air, from c 0.6 to 11 kHz,
- the range of sensitive hearing extends across 7 octaves in water, with
lowest thresholds between 0.3 & 56 kHz.

Critical ratio measurements were similar in air & water, and increased
monotonically
- from 12 dB at 0.1 kHz
- to 30 dB at 25.6 kHz.

Concl.:
- the auditory systems of these seals are quite efficient at extracting
signals from background noise,
- spotted seals possess sound reception capabilities different from ice
seals, more similar to harbor seals Phoca vitulina,
- the results are consistent with the amphibious lifestyle & the apparent
reliance on sound.


_____


http://news.sciencemag.org/plants-animals/2014/02/scienceshot-spotted-seals
-have-amphibious-ears


Whether by land or sea, spotted seals have excellent hearing.
Journal of Experimental Biology 26.2.14

Scientists had suspected that seals use sound to hunt in dark Arctic
waters.
But Phoca largha also spend time above the water, while giving birth, or
nursing their pups on ice floes.

Researchers trained 2 orphaned seal pups from Alaska (Amak & Tunu) to
touch a target with their noses when they heard a tone.
By testing a range of frequencies, they found that seals detect 7 octaves
of sound underwater.
But they have surprisingly good hearing in the air as well:
the seals hear 4 octaves, with sensitivity similar to land carnivores,
such as cats.

 

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28ma whale had echolocation - note parallel to ancient coastal hominins (Neanderthal/erectus): dense bones/skull, air sinuses; Neanderthals had ability to speak)

http://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2014/03/new-fossil-species-supports-early.html#.UyIFIOzD-JA
"Its dense bones and air sinuses would have helped this whale focus its vocalizations into a probing beam of sound, which likely helped it find food at night or in muddy water ocean waters," said Geisler.

NYIT's College of Osteopathic Medicine's whale evolution website includes a new page on Cotylocara.

After detailed comparisons with living and fossil whales, Geisler and his colleagues determined that Cotylocara belonged to an extinct family of whales that split off from other whales at least 32 million years ago. Their new discovery, when viewed in the context of the entire toothed whale family tree, implies that a rudimentary form of echolocation evolved in the common ancestor of Cotylocara and other toothed whales, between 35 and 32 million years ago. Once it evolved, the fossil record indicates that there was a progressive increase in size and complexity in the air sacs and muscles that controlled the sound generating apparatus in the face.

 

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Dolphin says 'seaweed' in whistle language

http://news.sciencemag.org/signal-noise/2014/03/dolphin-says-seaweed

(dolphins do not eat seaweed)

Prototype software created to interpret certain dolphin whistles has performed its first real-time translation, New Scientist reports. While swimming in the Caribbean with a dolphin pod and donning the translator—dubbed Cetacean Hearing and Telemetry—a researcher heard one of the marine mammals blurt out a whistle that stands for seaweed. Researchers had taught the dolphin that sound, which the technology is designed to distinguish and translate into an English word. The work will be presented at the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing in May.

 

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Humans freedivers can make click sounds with tongue while not exhaling air, much slower than but similar to dolphin clicks/buzzes. It is possible that human language (rhythmic vowel sounds interrupted by consonant pauses) began with primate calls/hoots/songs that were modified by experiences at waterside foraging, including submerged underwater (both oral clicking and stone ticking) and backfloating/wading (humming, singing, chattering).

Airborne bats, aquatic dolphins, arboreal aye-aye lemurs and ground-based shrews have been known to echolocate (bio-sonar) via lingual clicks, laryngo-nasal clicks or finger ticks, and both modern humans (electronic sonar) and traditional hunting-gathering humans (Khoi-San click consonant speech) employ sound in this way, for communication, attraction and geo-positioning. (Rainforest canopy orangutans often press leaves to their lips making 'raspberry' sounds to communicate, gorillas beat cupped palms on chest, chimps beat sticks on hollow trees, all also have various long calls, while lesser apes sing & hoot, monkeys chatter & call.)

Some dog trainers use clickers, and divers use similar sharp sounds to communicate messages. DDeden (H/T to MataRayJay & Apneaddict @ spearfishing forum; and posts at http://www.scubaboard.com/forums/archive/index.php/t-54967.html)

http://www.solware.co.uk/dog-training/K9-Clicker-Dog-Training.shtml
---

Why "Click"?
The clicker is a wonderful invention. Speeding up the training process this little noise button is a neat tool for the training box. Because the click is a consistent sound every single time it is very easy for dogs to make the association of click = treat. Which in turn makes marking exactly when your dog is doing the right thing foolproof.
The clicker is a metal strip inside a small plastic box that makes a distinct clicking sound when pressed. The click is much faster and more distinct than saying “good dog” and much more effective than using treats alone. To teach a dog the meaning of the click, a treat is given immediately after clicking. Once the dog learns the positive effects of the clicking sound, the clicker itself acts as a conditioned reinforcer.
According to Alyssa Walker of Walker Dog Training, clicker training is not meant to completely replace the use of treats. The sound of the click instantly tells the dog that what he has done will earn him a reward. To emphasize this, clicks should frequently be followed by treats. Otherwise, the clicker will lose its effectiveness. "While some clicker trainers may not give a reward every time they click, pretty much all clicker trainers continue to follow the click with a reward," says Alyssa. "It's very important to use strong rewards a lot during initial training stages, and treats are often the strongest reward for a dog."
Here’s how to you can easily train your dog to respond to the clicker before moving on to basic and advanced training. The following steps are often referred to as “loading” the clicker.

• Begin with your dog in a quiet area.
• Have a handful of your dog’s favorite treats ready. Ideally, this should be done when your dog is hungry.
• Press the clicker and immediately give your dog a treat. Repeat 5-10 times.
• You can test your success by clicking when your dog is not paying attention to you. If your dog responds to the click by suddenly looking at you, then looking for a treat, you are ready to move on.
• Next, begin teaching your dog basic commands. At the exact moment your dog performs the desired action, press the clicker. Follow with a treat and praise.

One of the best things about the clicker is the accuracy. "It's like taking a photo of the exact behavior you're rewarding", Alyssa explains. The dog associates his action with the click and, subsequently, the reward. Not only does he better understand what he is doing, this also makes him more likely to repeat the action when asked in the future.
Clicker training can also be very effective for advanced training. "You simply click for small steps toward the behavior and work the dog toward the final, completed behavior," says Alyssa. "This allows you to be totally hands-off (except for delivering the reward, of course). You don't need to manipulate the dog into position, which can often slow the process."
Overall, the clicker is a very valuable tool in the training process. When creating an obedience and training program for your dog, consider using the clicker and see for yourself how well the method works.

Source: Alyssa Walker, Walker Dog Training Website: WalkerDogTraining.com

 

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(general, not diving specific)
https://www.academia.edu/6774269/Th...al_architecture_in_the_Near_Eastern_Neolithic

Study of ancient stone structures to detect speech/sound traits...including Gobekle Tepe (Anatolia, Turkey 11,000 year old group of T-shaped standing stones set in rings (like Stonehenge) and later buried, probably a grain storage silo/temple complex.)

"Sound has often been overlooked in modern Western culture, where sight is prized above all other senses (Ong 1991; Smith 2007, 8
– 11). While the dichotomy between sight and sound has been criticized (Ingold 2000), researchers have nonetheless continued to prioritize sight and vision, overlooking the other important ways in which people interact with their environment: sound, touch, smell, taste, temperature, balance and bodily awareness (Henshaw 2012, 7)."

"The human ear can hear sounds over a range of frequencies, from 20Hz to 20,000Hz, as well as a range of intensities over 120dB. Ears can compensate for changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature, function in water or air and can not only detect but locate sounds (Henshaw2012, 139). The physical organ receives and transmits sound waves to our brains, where the sounds are interpreted. While the interpretation of these waves is cultural, the behaviour of the sound waves is not; therefore, the only sure way of examining the senses in the deeper past is through a focus on a purely physical analysis of the behaviour of sound in space."